How to Breathe While Running

Should You Breathe Through Your Nose or Mouth When Running?

Next time you go for a run, take a moment to notice how you are breathing. Nasal breathing during running is the latest performance enhancing hack.

But as exercise intensifies, most of us open our mouths. We take in bigger, harder breaths to "get more oxygen." If this happens even at easy paces, you may be missing out on benefits for your health and your running.

However, if you're reading this article, you're about to get a whole lot more insight into how to breathe while running. And what to expect when you make changes to your breathing.

In one study, runners who had adapted to nasal breathing breathed about 22% less air through the nose than through the mouth, while reaching a similar peak effort. Nasal breathing also protects your airways and can make easy running feel calmer and more controlled. This article explains why, and how to make the switch.

Frustrating, isn't it? When even expert advice is contradictory, it can be hard to know how to breathe while running.

Writing for Adidas Runtastic, one bronze medal-winning canoeist states: "It is not a good idea to deprive your body of a way of achieving maximum oxygen uptake when your body is under stress.

As the intensity of your running increases, you will soon see that you cannot get enough oxygen by simply breathing through your nose."

Dr. George Dallam takes a different view. Dallam is professor of exercise science and health promotion at CSU-Pueblo. He's also a former USA Triathlon National Team coach.

He has conducted detailed studies into the benefits of nose breathing for runners, and what constitutes proper breathing while running.

Dallam says false assumptions about mouth breathing are creating, "a nearly epidemic rate of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in endurance athletes."

Dallam's research challenges the assumption that mouth breathing is always superior. His results suggest that, with adaptation, runners can train through the nose at most intensities while breathing more economically. Both experts have a point: at maximal effort, the nose can limit airflow, so mouth breathing is normal during the hardest efforts.

Why Runners Struggle to Breathe Through the Nose

As well as general functions, like filtering, humidifying and warming the air we breathe, the nose plays an important role in overall health, including helping the body fight infection.

However, exercise can have negative effects, causing the nasal cavity to swell and restrict airflow.

Common nasal dysfunctions that can occur during exercise include a congested nose and in more extreme cases, the mucous membranes in the nose dry out causing crusting and bleeding and making breathing difficult.

Also, changes in air pressure can lead to a lot of pain and pressure in some people's sinuses when exercising.

Causes of Nasal Dysfunction During Exercise

The most common biological cause of nasal dysfunction is an increase in nasal secretions, which can be caused by the body's response to heat, humidity, or exercise itself.

Physiological factors that can cause nasal dysfunction include blood pressure, heart rate, and airflow changes. While environmental conditions such as pollution and high winds can also negatively contribute.

How to Improve Nasal Breathing for Running

Before you exercise, practices such as nasal irrigation can help to clear your nasal passages and improve airflow. You can also try using a nasal strip, decongestant or nasal spray to help open your sinuses.

However, a simple drug-free exercise to clear the nose can also be found on the Oxygen Advantage® YouTube channel.

During exercise, it's important to stay hydrated and drink plenty of water. This will help keep your nasal passages moist and prevent them from drying. You can also try wearing a nasal dilator to help keep your nostrils open.

After exercise, it's important to take some time to relax and recuperate. This will help your body expel any built-up heat and moisture and allow your nasal passages to return to their normal size.

Good nasal function matters during exercise. When nasal function is impaired, it can range from a minor annoyance to a problem that needs medical attention.

In addition, nasal dysfunction can profoundly impact lifestyle, making it difficult or impossible to participate in many activities.

Nose vs Mouth Breathing Running: Quick Guide

Your ability to run with your mouth closed depends on:

• Your breathing. Your BOLT score measures how quickly you feel the first clear urge to breathe during a comfortable breath hold, and is a useful way to track your progress.
• Your nasal airway. A well-developed nasal airway can handle a larger volume of air.
• Your fitness levels and how hard you are running.

When to breathe through the nose during running?

• Low to moderate-intensity exercise: continue with nasal breathing in and out.
• Moderate to high-intensity exercise: breathe in through the nose and out through the mouth
• High-intensity exercise: breathe in and out through the mouth

Run with your mouth closed as much as you comfortably can. When the air hunger is too strong, slow down, or switch to mouth breathing if the effort requires it.

Over six to ten weeks, many people find air hunger diminishes the more they exercise with the mouth closed. This can translate into reduced ventilation for a given intensity.

Benefits of nasal breathing running

• Lower breathing rate and less air breathed at easy and moderate paces
• Filtered, warmed and humidified air
• Improved functional breathing for functional movement
• Conservation of moisture to help prevent dehydration
• Less mouth drying, which may help protect teeth and gums
• Protection against exercise-induced bronchoconstriction
• An added training load for the breathing muscles
• Psychological benefits of accessing flow states
• Calmer breathing that can support recovery

Scientific evidence behind the OA technique

From a functional perspective, the nose is perfectly designed for breathing. Commentators in the nose breathing vs. mouth breathing debate are inclined to state that breathing through the mouth is like eating through the nose.

The mouth provides a vital alternative route for air when the nose is blocked or when exercise is very intense. But it has no specific functions in terms of breathing.

Conversely, nose breathing supports the respiratory system. It filters and warms inhaled air before it enters the lungs. It adds moisture, protecting the airways from irritation and dehydration.

It encourages the diaphragm to engage, supporting core stability. It slows the breath, which can help calm the nervous system and ease the effects of stress.

Nasal breathing also harnesses nitric oxide (NO). NO is a gas produced in large quantities in the sinuses around the nasal cavity.

It plays a role in blood flow in the lungs and in immune defense against viruses, bacteria, and other toxins.

So why is the advice given to runners so often contradictory?

The Science Behind Nasal Breathing for Runners

Many of us believe things about the breath that are not true. We think we need to breathe more air into our lungs to get more oxygen. And we let our breathing become hard and fast when we run, even at easy paces. Let's explore the science.

It's a common misunderstanding that more air always means more oxygen. But as awareness about the breath becomes more mainstream, athletes are catching on to the power of functional breathing.

In 2009, Christopher McDougall's book, Born To Run, told of the Tarahumara people in Mexico, who are famous for running extraordinary distances. Running is a way of life for the Tarahumara, and their relaxed, efficient running style has inspired many runners.

In his 2020 book, Breath, the journalist James Nestor explored the work of the late Russian doctor, Konstantin Buteyko. From his clinical observations, Buteyko concluded that chronic hyperventilation contributed to many diseases.

He noticed that sick people breathe hard. He asked the question, "Is the hard breathing caused by disease, or is disease the result of hard breathing?"

Chronic hyperventilation is a dysfunctional breathing pattern that involves over-breathing. When you breathe more air than your body needs, levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood drop below normal.

Buteyko devised a series of nasal breathing exercises to reduce breathing volume and help people become more comfortable with air hunger. Similar ideas about light, gentle breathing appear in traditional yoga.

In 2018, George Dallam ran an experiment. He tested recreational runners after they had trained for at least 6 months using only nose breathing. When breathing through the nose, the runners had higher exhaled CO2 levels and breathed less air for the oxygen they used.

Breathing was slower. Even though CO2 was higher, the runners were able to reach a similar peak effort.

In fact, the runners breathed about 22% less air through the nose. This kind of breathing economy could make a difference during endurance running.

How Breathing Affects Oxygen Delivery When You Run

The way you breathe during exercise affects how economical your breathing is and how hard running feels.

Watch elite tennis players between points. The best tend to stay composed, bringing their breathing back under control quickly while others gasp for air.

Novak Djokovic, one of the greatest players of all time, has spoken openly about using breathwork to manage pressure and recover between points.

CO2 plays a special role in breathing chemistry. Together with acidity, it helps the hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells release oxygen (O2) to the body (the Bohr effect).

When blood carbon dioxide is low from over-breathing, the bond between Hb and O2 tightens, making it harder for oxygen to be released to the tissues.

CO2 is also a powerful feedback signal in breathing control, although breathing during exercise is driven by several inputs, including signals from the brain's motor areas and feedback from working muscles. Rising CO2 contributes to the feelings of air hunger that can make running feel hard.

How strongly you react to air hunger, and how you perceive it, can affect how soon you feel breathless.

In a recent interview, Djokovic opened up about his use of breathing techniques, explaining:

"That is how I try to get myself back into an optimum state of mind and body. Through breathwork, conscious breathing, whether it's just one or two or five or ten breaths depending on how time I have… Just conscious breathing, It's as simple as that."

Why Mouth Breathing During Running Hurts Your Health

When you breathe through your nose, the air you inhale is cleaner. What's more, nasal breathing supports deep, restful sleep, which is the cornerstone of good health.

Running keeps you healthy, right? Not necessarily. Asthma and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction are more common in endurance athletes. Respiratory infections are also common among runners, particularly after competition. Fit does not always mean well. This links with the breath in several ways:

• Fast, hard breathing at easy paces is often upper chest breathing. It can disrupt the balance of O2 and CO2, and it prevents your diaphragm from working properly.
• If you breathe into your chest when you run, it can affect core stability. During hard, sustained efforts, tiring breathing muscles can reduce blood flow to your legs, adding to leg fatigue.

• Fast, hard mouth breathing doesn't filter, warm, or moisten the air. Imagine you're running near a road, breathing hard with your mouth open. You're taking more pollution straight to your lungs with every breath. Cold, dry air can cause the airways to constrict, making breathing more difficult. It's hardly surprising your asthma flares up.

• Nose breathing can help reduce mouth breathing and snoring at night. Sleep is essential for good health and recovery. A nasal strip for running can help you avoid mouth breathing.

How to Breathe Through Your Nose While Running

Find your pace while running and learn when, and why, you might sometimes breathe through your mouth.

The Oxygen Advantage® method involves the practice of nasal breathing at rest and during most training. For recreational runners, it's possible to maintain nose breathing for most easy and moderate training. In one small study of runners who had adapted to nasal breathing for six months, maximal performance through the nose was not significantly different from mouth breathing [3]. In people who are not adapted, nasal-only breathing reduces peak performance at maximal effort [9].

If you feel as if you aren't getting enough air, simply slow down and allow your breathing to normalize. It's all about finding your pace. In James Nestor's book, Breath, the author shares his experience of jogging with his mouth closed.

He describes how he would experience the discomfort of intense breathlessness. But his pulse oximeter registered no decrease in blood oxygen saturation.

If you are a competitive runner, you will need to mouth breathe some of the time. This will allow you to train hard enough for high-intensity sessions. If you try to maintain nose breathing while working at a high intensity, the air hunger will be too strong.

It may also become impossible to control your breathing through the nose during very intensive exercise. Nasal breathing should not be too hard and fast. This can result in pain in the nasal airway.

Even for recreational runners, once your BOLT score is higher than 20 seconds, it is okay to breathe through your mouth some of the time. Remember Dallam's study?

After 6 months training with only nasal breathing, his runners could reach a similar peak effort through the nose as through the mouth, while breathing less air through the nose.

To get the balance right, competitive runners should aim to breathe through the nose for at least 50% of training. And don't deliberately "breathe big" for competition. Your nasal breathing practice during training can make your breathing more controlled when you need it most.

For the rest of the time, day, and night, keep your mouth closed. Many people notice benefits including:

• Less snoring
• Better heart rate variability
• Better mental focus
• Fewer airway symptoms, including exercise-induced asthma
• Less stress

Switching to nasal breathing takes patience. Complete adaptation will depend on your starting point, how comfortable you are with air hunger, and how diligently you practice nasal breathing.

Nasal vs Mouth Breathing Running: What Research Shows

We've covered the basics of proper breathing when running. And if you've read this far, you know you should mainly be breathing through your nose at easy and moderate paces.

Now it's time to look at the science in more detail and answer some more questions. Finally, we'll look at how you can integrate nasal breathing into your training.

Q1. Why Do I Struggle to Breathe When Running?

You set off for a run. It's a bright, cold morning, and you're looking forward to getting out. But as you get into your stride, your breath becomes heavy.

You begin wheezing, your chest tightens and burns as the cold air hits your lungs. And even though you don't have asthma, you feel like you're about to have an asthma attack.

Bronchoconstriction is a condition in which the smooth muscle in your airways tightens. It causes breathlessness, wheezing and coughing.

When these breathing symptoms are triggered by exercise, it's called exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB). EIB is a common problem for runners. It can be so severe it stops you exercising.

Research links EIB to breathing large volumes of cold, dry air into the lungs, which is more likely through an open mouth. Warm, humid air is much less likely to trigger it [1].

Remember, your nose warms and humidifies air as you inhale. Which means breathing through your nose can help reduce breathing symptoms. If you have asthma, keep following your doctor's advice.

Q2. How Does Breathing Change During Exercise?

During exercise, your body uses more oxygen. As your muscles work, they produce more carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide and acidity help the hemoglobin in red blood cells release oxygen to the working muscles, where the cells use it to make energy.

Breathing during exercise is closely matched to how much CO2 your body produces, but researchers still don't fully understand how. Several inputs work together, including signals from the brain's motor areas, feedback from working muscles and the lungs, and chemical feedback from CO2, oxygen and acidity [10]. How comfortable running feels also depends on how you perceive and respond to breathlessness.

As exercise gets harder, the speed and volume of your breathing increase. Breathing becomes effortful, and your heart begins to pound.

When running already makes you breathless, the idea of nasal breathing may seem ridiculous. Nasal breathing during running slows your breathing and reduces breathing volume.

At easy and moderate intensities, this can raise CO2 slightly and create a stronger air hunger, which can feel unpleasant. By the time volume of air entering your lungs reaches about 35 or 40 liters a minute, you are desperate to open your mouth to breathe [2].

Mouth breathing is faster. It helps you take in a larger volume of air. It feels more comfortable when exercise is intense. And as you blow off more air during exhalation, CO2 levels drop, reducing your feelings of air hunger [3].

If you maintain nasal breathing at easy and moderate paces, you train yourself to breathe more economically and stay calm with air hunger.

At first, it will be tough. You'll feel strong air hunger and your nose will run. Bring a tissue. If you continue to practice nasal breathing for 6 to 8 weeks, many people find the air hunger subsides. Your body adapts, and your breathing becomes lighter and more controlled. It will become easier to breathe through the nose at easy paces.

Q3. What's the Best Breathing Technique for Running Endurance?

Older research suggested that endurance athletes tend to breathe less during exercise and may respond less strongly to CO2 [4, 5].

More recent research paints a more nuanced picture. A 2022 study found that endurance athletes and sedentary people had similar sensitivity to CO2, but athletes appeared to use additional strategies during exercise to reduce its influence on their breathing and perceptions [11].

Research by Xavier Woorons has also shown that trained men breathe differently from untrained men during exercise in low-oxygen conditions [6].

Your capacity for exercise is shaped by many factors, including your heart, muscles, breathing muscles, and how you perceive breathlessness.

Breathing exercises can train several of these: breathing pattern, respiratory muscle strength, and how you respond to air hunger.

Q4. Exactly How Much More Efficient Is Nasal Breathing While Running?

Remember our exercise-science expert George Dallam? To adapt to nose breathing, his runners had trained for 6 months. Dallam recorded results when the runners breathed through the nose, and when they breathed through the mouth. Let's look at his findings…

• During nose breathing, the breathing rate was 39.2 breaths per minute. During mouth breathing it was 49.4 breaths per minute.
• The percentage of CO2 in exhaled air (called end tidal carbon dioxide) was much higher in the nose breathing trial (44.7mmHg compared with 40.2mmHg in mouth breathing).
• The runners breathed less air for each unit of oxygen they used when breathing through the nose.
• Because the runners had trained for 6 months using nose breathing, they breathed more slowly. Slower, deeper breaths mean a larger share of each breath reaches the alveoli, where gas exchange takes place.
• VO2 max and peak performance were not significantly different between nose and mouth breathing, although VO2 max was around 7% lower through the nose. This was a small study of ten runners.
• Dallam concluded that nasally restricted breathing during running may be beneficial for endurance athletes who want to boost their performance and maintain good respiratory health [3].
• Research in mechanically ventilated patients has also shown that air hunger caused by raised CO2 can lessen when CO2 stays elevated over time [7].

Q5. How Can I Train My Breathing Muscles, and What Does the Diaphragm Have to Do with Running Anyway?

When you exercise intensively, your muscles work harder. This applies to your breathing muscles, just as it does to your leg muscles. When a muscle works harder, it needs more oxygen. And just like your legs, your breathing muscles can get tired.

Especially during hard, sustained running.

As your breathing speed and volume increase during heavy efforts, fatiguing breathing muscles can trigger a reflex that narrows blood vessels in the legs, reducing blood flow to them.

This is called the respiratory muscle metaboreflex. It adds to leg fatigue and the sense of effort, forcing you to slow down.

If your breathing pattern is inefficient, you may breathe harder than necessary. Breathing hard requires more work from the breathing muscles, so they tire more quickly. Your BOLT score is a simple way to track how your breathing changes as you train.

When the respiratory muscles overwork, metabolic by-products build up in them, and this is what triggers the reflex.

Studies have shown that when the work of breathing is reduced during hard exercise, blood flow to the legs improves [8].

Any attempt to improve breathing for running should involve strengthening the breathing muscles. To strengthen a muscle, you need to work that muscle harder than normal. Breathing techniques can help.

This is tricky with the breathing muscles. Even when you work out intensively, it's not possible to sustain intensive exercise for long enough to make a difference.

The diaphragm is a striated muscle. It's the same type of muscle as the muscles that move your joints. The most reliable way to strengthen any striated muscle is to use it. And then to add a load to that use.

But how do you add a load to breathing?

Nose breathing while running adds resistance and encourages the diaphragm to engage. Mouth breathing makes it easier to slip into upper-chest breathing.

The diaphragm is an inspiratory muscle. It's active on inhalation and largely passive during exhalation.

You can train your inspiratory muscles by inhaling against resistance. You can add a load to your breathing muscles by switching to nasal breathing while running. But you can extend the practice by using a resistance mask like SportsMask.

SportsMask has an adjustable valve opening. This allows you to condition your breathing muscles, and it works the same way as any other progressive muscle training program.

This technique is called IFRL or inspiratory flow resistive loading. Like other forms of inspiratory muscle training, it can increase the strength of your breathing muscles.

Breathing Exercises to Improve Running Performance

Explore how the biochemistry of breathing can help strengthen your breathing muscles.

You can use the Oxygen Advantage® exercises with or without elevation training mask to strengthen your diaphragm. Specifically, the strong breath holding exercises to simulate training at high altitude.

When you hold your breath to achieve strong air hunger, your body can't remove excess carbon dioxide from the lungs. During the breath hold, your cells continue to use oxygen.

The result is a combination of high blood carbon dioxide - called hypercapnia - and low blood oxygen - called hypoxia. You can read more about intermittent hypoxic/hypercapnic training by browsing our science pages.

The body's natural state is homeostasis. And so, it puts mechanisms in place to restore normal blood gas levels. Your brain increasingly signals the breathing muscles to resume breathing.

As the breath hold continues, these signals become more urgent, and the diaphragm begins to contract again and again. By holding your breath, you give your diaphragm a workout.

Note: Strong breath holds are not suitable for everyone. Avoid them if you have a heart condition, high or low blood pressure, epilepsy, or another serious medical condition, or if you are pregnant, unless cleared by your doctor. Never practice them in or under water.

How to Switch to Nasal Breathing When Running: 6 Steps

6 steps to switch to nasal breathing during exercise, and build a healthy habit for life.

1. Start by slowing everything down to a level where you feel a light air hunger. Gradually increase exercise intensity as the feeling of air hunger goes away. Track your progress using your BOLT score.

2. A progressive warm up, and indoor training on a treadmill or indoor bike can be helpful too. The Oxygen Advantage® nasal breathing and breath holding exercises are easy to integrate into your training regimen.

3. Pay attention to your breathing. Notice whether you breathe through your mouth. What happens when you are running? Check your BOLT score as a personal baseline. It measures how quickly you feel the first clear urge to breathe, and it is a useful way to track your progress.

4. Practice the exercise to unblock your nose. Many people who mouth breathe do so because the nose is blocked. If your nose stays blocked, see a doctor, as there may be a structural cause.

5. If you find it hard to breathe through your nose during exercise, slow down until your breathing has normalized. You might find it helpful to use MYOTAPE Sport to tape your lips. If you have a deviated septum, NasalDilator will help keep your airways open.

6. Use MYOTAPE to support nasal breathing during sleep. This can help relax your nervous system, reduce mouth dryness and support sleep quality and recovery. Only tape if you can breathe comfortably through your nose. Mouth taping is not a treatment for sleep apnea.

The breath offers a doorway to your full potential. But when you first make the switch, everything will feel different. Be patient. The body needs time to adapt. Many runners notice improvements in recovery within weeks.

You may experience fewer asthma symptoms and find your stamina and focus improve. And remember. The best breathing techniques for running start with the nose.

Train Your Breathing, Not Just Your Legs

Most runners train their legs. Few train their breathing. Yet your breathing pattern affects how economical your breathing is, how quickly you recover between efforts, and how breathless you feel at a given pace.

The best way to start is to commit to nasal breathing during your easy runs. Join the Oxygen Advantage Nasal Running Challenge, a structured program that takes you from mouth breather to confident nasal runner, step by step.

And if you want the complete science behind breathing for running performance, Patrick McKeown's online breathing course covers everything from CO2 tolerance to race-day composure, guided by Patrick directly.

FAQs

Q: Should you breathe through your nose or mouth when running?
A: Breathe through your nose at easy and moderate paces. Nasal breathing filters and humidifies air, adds beneficial resistance, and in adapted runners can reduce breathing volume by around 22%. At hard, maximal efforts, mouth breathing is normal and necessary.

Q: How do I train myself to breathe through my nose while running?
A: Run at a pace where you can comfortably sustain nasal breathing. If air hunger becomes too intense, slow your pace until breathing calms, then continue through the nose. Many people find it becomes much easier within six to eight weeks.

Q: What are the performance benefits of nasal breathing for runners?
A: Nasal breathing can reduce breathing volume at a given pace, protect the airways, and train calmer, more controlled breathing. Many runners find easy running feels less effortful. It does not increase VO2 max, and at maximal efforts the nose can limit airflow.

Q: Is it normal to slow down when switching to nasal breathing while running?
A: Yes. Runners who are not adapted to nasal breathing usually need to slow down at first, and nasal-only breathing reduces peak performance at maximal effort. With practice over several weeks, most people find they can run faster while keeping their mouth closed.

Q: Can nasal breathing while running improve race times?
A: It may help indirectly by improving breathing control, reducing breathlessness at easy paces and protecting the airways. Race times depend on many factors, and during hard race efforts most runners will need to breathe through the mouth.

References:

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2. Niinimaa, V. P. S. R. J., P. Cole, S. Mintz, and R. J. Shephard. "The switching point from nasal to oronasal breathing." Respiration physiology 42, no. 1 (1980): 61-71.
3. Dallam, George M., Steve R. McClaran, Daniel G. Cox, and Carol P. Foust. "Effect of Nasal Versus Oral Breathing on Vo2max and Physiological Economy in Recreational Runners Following an Extended Period Spent Using Nasally Restricted Breathing." International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science 6, no. 2 (2018): 22-29.
4. McGurk, S. P., B. A. Blanksby, and M. J. Anderson. "The relationship of hypercapnic ventilatory responses to age, gender and athleticism." Sports medicine 19, no. 3 (1995): 173-183.
5. Martin, BRUCE J., KENNETH E. Sparks, CLIFFORD W. Zwillich, and JOHN V. Weil. "Low exercise ventilation in endurance athletes." Medicine and science in sports 11, no. 2 (1979): 181-185.
6. Woorons, X., P. Mollard, A. Pichon, C. Lamberto, A. Duvallet, and J‐P. Richalet. "Moderate exercise in hypoxia induces a greater arterial desaturation in trained than untrained men." Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports 17, no. 4 (2007): 431-436.
7. Bloch-Salisbury, Elisabeth, STEVEN A. Shea, R. O. B. E. R. T. Brown, Karleyton Evans, and Robert B. Banzett. "Air hunger induced by acute increase in PCO2 adapts to chronic elevation of PCO2 in ventilated humans." Journal of Applied Physiology 81, no. 2 (1996): 949-956.
8. Amann, Markus. "Pulmonary system limitations to endurance exercise performance in humans." Experimental physiology 97, no. 3 (2012): 311-318.
9. Mapelli, M., et al. "Nasal vs. oral BREATHing WIn Strategies in healthy individuals during cardiorespiratory Exercise testing (BreathWISE)." PLoS One 20, no. 7 (2025): e0326661.
10. Dempsey, J. A., and D. R. McCrimmon. "V̇CO2: the essential underpinning to homeostatic control of breathing." American Journal of Physiology: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 331 (2026): L34-L47.
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